HISTORY
In the 16th century, Burundi was
a kingdom characterized by a hierarchical political authority
and tributary economic exchange. A king (mwani) headed a princely
aristocracy (gwana) which owned most of the land and required
a tribute, or tax, from local farmers and herders. In the mid-18th
century, this Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land,
production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire--a
patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal
protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure.
Although European explorers and missionaries
made brief visits to the area as early as 1856, it was not until
1899 that Burundi came under German East African administration.
In 1916 Belgian troops occupied the area. In 1923, the League
of Nations mandated to Belgium the territory of Ruanda-Urundi,
encompassing modern-day Rwanda and Burundi. The Belgians administered
the territory through indirect rule, building on the Tutsi-dominated
aristocratic hierarchy. Following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi
became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative
authority. After 1948, Belgium permitted the emergence of competing
political parties. Two political parties emerged: the Union for
National Progress (UPRONA), a multi-ethnic party led by Tutsi
Prince Louis Rwagasore and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC)
supported by Belgium. In 1961, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated
following an UPRONA victory in legislative elections.
Full independence was achieved on
July 1, 1962. In the context of weak democratic institutions at
independence, Tutsi King Mwambutsa IV established a constitutional
monarchy comprising equal numbers of Hutus and Tutsis. The 1965
assassination of the Hutu prime minister set in motion a series
of destabilizing Hutu revolts and subsequent governmental repression.
In 1966, King Mwambutsa was deposed by his son, Prince Ntare IV,
who himself was deposed by his prime minister Capt. Michel Micombero
in the same year. Micombero abolished the monarchy and declared
a republic, although a de facto military regime emerged. In 1972,
an aborted Hutu rebellion triggered the flight of hundreds of
thousands of Burundians. Civil unrest continued throughout the
late 1960s and early 1970s.
In 1976, Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza
took power in a bloodless coup. Although Bagaza led a Tutsi-dominated
military regime, he encouraged land reform, electoral reform,
and national reconciliation. In 1981, a new constitution was promulgated.
In 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state, as the sole candidate.
After his election, Bagaza's human rights record deteriorated
as he suppressed religious activities and detained political opposition
members.
In 1987, Maj. Pierre Buyoya overthrew
Colonel Bagaza. He dissolved opposition parties, suspended the
1981 constitution, and instituted his ruling Military Committee
for National Salvation (CSMN). During 1988, increasing tensions
between the ruling Tutsis and the majority Hutus resulted in violent
confrontations between the army, the Hutu opposition, and Tutsi
hardliners. During this period, an estimated 150,000 people were
killed, with tens of thousands of refugees flowing to neighboring
countries. Buyoya formed a commission to investigate the causes
of the 1988 unrest and to develop a charter for democratic reform.
In
1991, Buyoya approved a constitution that provided for a president,
nonethnic government, and a parliament. Burundi's first Hutu president,
Melchior Ndadaye, of the Hutu-dominated FRODEBU Party, was elected
in 1993. He was assassinated by factions of the Tutsi-dominated
armed forces in October 1993. The country then plunged into civil
war, which killed tens of thousands of people and displaced hundreds
of thousands by the time the FRODEBU government regained control
and elected Cyprien Ntaryamira president in January 1994. Nonetheless,
the security situation continued to deteriorate. In April 1994,
President Ntayamira and Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana
died in a plane crash. This act marked the beginning of the Rwandan
genocide, while in Burundi, the death of Ntaryamira exacerbated
the violence and unrest. Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was installed
to a 4-year presidency on April 8, but the security situation
further declined. The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan
refugees and the activities of armed Hutu and Tutsi groups further
destabilized the regime.
