HISTORY
The Spaniards used the island
of Hispaniola (of which Haiti is the western part and the Dominican
Republic the eastern) as a launching point from which to explore
the rest of the Western Hemisphere. French buccaneers later used
the western third of the island as a point from which to harass
English and Spanish ships. In 1697, Spain ceded the western third
of Hispaniola to France. As piracy was gradually suppressed, some
French adventurers became planters, making Saint Domingue, as
the French portion of the island was known, the "pearl of the
Antilles"--one of the richest colonies in the 18th century French
empire.
During this period, African
slaves were brought to work on sugarcane and coffee plantations.
In 1791, the slave population revolted--led by Haitian heroes
Toussaint L'Ouverture, Jean Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe--and
gained control of the northern part of the French colony, waging
a war of attrition against the French.
By January 1804, local forces
defeated an army sent by Napoleon Bonaparte, established independence
from France, and renamed the area Haiti. The impending defeat
of the French in Haiti is widely credited with contributing to
Napoleon's decision to sell the Louisiana territory to the United
States in 1803. Haiti is the world's oldest black republic and
the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere, after the
United States. Although Haiti actively assisted the independence
movements of many Latin American countries, the independent nation
of former slaves was excluded from the hemisphere's first regional
meeting of independent nations, in Panama in 1826, and did not
receive U.S. diplomatic recognition until 1862.
Two separate regimes--north
and south--emerged after independence but were unified in 1820.
Two years later, Haiti occupied Santo Domingo, the eastern, Spanish-speaking
part of Hispaniola. In 1844, however, Santo Domingo broke away
from Haiti and became the Dominican Republic. With 22 changes
of government from 1843 to 1915, Haiti experienced numerous periods
of intense political and economic disorder, prompting the United
States military intervention of 1915. Following a 19-year occupation,
U.S. military forces were withdrawn in 1934, and Haiti regained
sovereign rule.
From February 7, 1986--when
the 29-year dictatorship of the Duvalier family ended--until 1991,
Haiti was ruled by a series of provisional governments. In 1987,
a constitution was ratified that provides for an elected, bicameral
parliament; an elected president that serves as head of state;
and a prime minister, cabinet, ministers, and supreme court appointed
by the president with parliament's consent. The Haitian Constitution
also provides for political decentralization through the election
of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government.
1991-1994 - An Interrupted Transition
In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a charismatic Roman Catholic priest, won 67% of the vote in a presidential election that international observers deemed largely free and fair. Aristide took office on February 7, 1991, but was overthrown that September in a violent coup led by dissatisfied elements of the army and supported by many of the country's economic elite. Following the coup, Aristide began a 3-year exile in the U.S. Several thousand Haitians may have been killed during the de facto military rule. The coup contributed to a large-scale exodus of Haitians by boat. The U.S. Coast Guard rescued a total of 41,342 Haitians at sea during 1991 and 1992, more than the number of rescued boat people from the previous 10 years combined.
From October 1991 to September
1994 an unconstitutional military de facto regime governed Haiti.
Various OAS and UN initiatives to end the political crisis through
the peaceful restoration of the constitutionally elected government,
including the Governors Island Agreement of July 1993, failed.
When the military refused to uphold its end of the agreements,
the de facto authorities refused to allow a return to constitutional
government, even though the economy was collapsing and the country's
infrastructure deteriorated from neglect.
1994 - International Intervention
On July 31, 1994, as repression mounted in Haiti and a UN-OAS civilian human rights monitoring mission (MICIVIH) was expelled from the country, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 940. UNSC Resolution 940 authorized member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership and to restore Haiti's constitutionally elected government to power.
In the weeks that followed,
the United States took the lead in forming a multinational force
(MFN) to carry out the UN's mandate by means of a military intervention.
In mid-September, with U.S. troops prepared to enter Haiti by
force, President Clinton dispatched a negotiating team led by
former President Jimmy Carter to persuade the de facto authorities
to step aside and allow for the return of constitutional rule.
With intervening troops already airborne, Gen. Raoul Cedras and
other top leaders agreed to accept the intervention of the MNF.
On September 19, 1994, the first contingents of what became a
21,000 international force touched down in Haiti to oversee the
end of military rule and the restoration of the constitutional
government. By early October, the three de facto leaders--Cedras,
Gen. Philippe Biamby, and Police Chief Lt. Col. Michel Francois
-and their families had departed Haiti. President Aristide and
other elected officials in exile returned on October 15.
Under the watchful eyes of
international peacekeepers, restored Haitian authorities organized
nationwide local and parliamentary elections in June 1995. A pro-Aristide,
multi-party coalition called the Lavalas Political Organization
(OPL) swept into power at all levels. With his term ending in
February 1996 and barred by the constitution from succeeding himself,
President Aristide agreed to step aside and support a presidential
election in December 1995. Rene Preval, a prominent Aristide political
ally, who had been Aristide's Prime Minister in 1991, took 88%
of the vote, and was sworn in to a 5-year term on February 7,
1996, during what was Haiti's first-ever transition between two
democratically elected presidents.
1996-2000 - Political Gridlock
In late 1996, former President Aristide broke from the OPL and created a new political party, the Lavalas Family (FL). The OPL, holding the majority of the Parliament, renamed itself the Struggling People's Organization, maintaining the OPL acronym. Elections in April 1997 for the renewal of one-third of the Senate and creation of commune-level assemblies and town delegations provided the first opportunity for the former political allies to compete for elected office. Although preliminary results indicated victories for FL candidates in most races, the elections, which drew only about 5% of registered voters, were plagued with allegations of fraud and not certified by most international observers as free and fair. Partisan rancor from the election dispute led to deep divisions within Parliament and between the legislative and executive branches, resulting in almost total governmental gridlock. In June 1997, Prime Minister Rosny Smarth resigned. Two successors proposed by President Preval were rejected by the legislature. Eventually, in December 1998, Jacques Edouard Alexis was confirmed as Prime Minister.
During this gridlock period,
the government was unable to organize the local and parliamentary
elections due in late 1998. In early January 1999, President Preval
dismissed legislators whose terms had expired--the entire Chamber
of Deputies and all but nine members of the Senate--and converted
local elected officials into state employees. The President and
Prime Minister then ruled by decree, establishing a cabinet composed
almost entirely of FL partisans. Under pressure from a new political
coalition called the Democratic Consultation Group (ESPACE), the
government allocated three seats of the nine-member Provisional
Electoral Council (CEP) to opposition groups and mandated the
CEP to organize the overdue elections for the end of 1999. Following
several delays, the first round of elections for local councils--ASEC
and CASEK, municipal governments, town delegates, the Chamber
of Deputies, and two-thirds of the Senate took place on May 21,
2000. The election drew the participation of a multitude of candidates
from a wide array of political parties and a voter turnout of
more than 60%.
2000 Electoral Crisis Leads to Aristide Departure
Controversy mired the good start, however, when the CEP used a flawed methodology to determine the winners of the Senate races, thus avoiding run-off elections for eight seats and giving the FL a virtual sweep in the first round. The flawed vote count, combined with the CEP's failure to investigate alleged irregularities and fraud, undercut the credibility of that body. The CEP President fled Haiti and two members eventually resigned rather than accede to government pressure to release the erroneous results. Nonetheless, on August 28, 2000, Haiti's new Parliament, including the contested Senators accorded victory under the flawed vote count, was convened.
Through a number of diplomatic missions by the OAS, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and the United States, the international community had sought to delay Parliament's seating until the electoral problems could be rectified. When these efforts were rebuffed, Haiti's main bilateral donors announced the end of "business as usual." They moved to re-channel their assistance away from the government and announced they would not support or send observers to the November elections. Concurrently, most opposition parties regrouped in an alliance that became the Democratic Convergence. The Convergence asserted that the May elections were so fraudulent that they should be annulled and held again under a new CEP. Elections for President and nine Senators took place on November 26, 2000. All major opposition parties boycotted these elections in which voter participation was estimated at 5%. Jean-Bertrand Aristide emerged as the easy victor of these controversial elections, and the candidates of his FL party swept all contested Senate seats. On February 6, 2001, the Democratic Convergence named respected lawyer and human rights activist Gerard Gourgue as provisional president of their "alternative government." Gourgue called the act "symbolic," designed to protest flawed elections. On February 7, 2001, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was inaugurated as President. Notwithstanding the previous year's electoral controversy, the inauguration marked the first time in the country's history that a full-term president peacefully transferred power to an incoming president.
It did not, however, put an end to the political stalemate. OAS-mediated negotiations began in April 2001 to find a resolution, focusing on the on possible makeup of a new electoral council, a timetable for new elections, security for political parties, and other confidence-building measures. These negotiations made some progress, but were suspended in mid-July without a final agreement. On July 28, 2001, unknown gunmen attacked police facilities in Port-au-Prince and the provinces. A subsequent government crackdown on opposition party members and former soldiers further increased tensions between Lavalas and Convergence. On December 17, 2001, unidentified gunmen attacked the National Palace in Port-au-Prince. Following the assault, pro-government groups attacked the offices and homes of several opposition leaders. One opposition member was killed. Negotiations between FL and Democratic Convergence, already on hold following the July violence, were suspended indefinitely.
In January 2002, the OAS Permanent Council adopted Resolution 806 on Haiti that called for government action to address the political stalemate, growing violence, and deterioration in respect for human rights. It also authorized OAS establishment of a Special Mission in Haiti to support implementation of steps called for in Resolution 806. The OAS Special Mission began operations in March 2002, working with the government on plans to strengthen Haiti's democratic institutions in security, justice, human rights, and governance. Nevertheless, the climate of security deteriorated and a rapidly weakening economy created risks of a humanitarian disaster. The OAS Permanent Council adopted Resolution 822, September 4, 2002, which set a new course for resolving the crisis by: committing the Haitian government to a series of steps leading to an improved climate of security for free and fair elections in 2003; supporting Haiti's resumption of normal relations with the International Financial Institutions; and strengthening the mandate of the OAS to monitor as well as support Haitian government efforts to comply with OAS resolutions. It also conferred new mandates related to conduct of elections and disarmament.
Protest strikes and attacks on opposition demonstrations by government-supported gangs between November 2002 and February 2003 hardened attitudes on both sides. The opposition issued a public call for Aristide's removal and announced plans for a transitional government. In March 2003, a high-level joint delegation of the OAS and Caribbean Community (CARICOM) presented specific demands to President Aristide to restore public security and create confidence necessary to move toward elections: select new leadership for the Haitian National Police in consultation with the OAS; arrest Amiot Metayer, a notorious gang leader; and disarm the security forces used by government politicians to intimidate opponents.
Events spiraled downward: In June 2003 the new police chief, appointed in consultation with the OAS, resigned and fled the country 14 days later after being ordered to give up his authority over budget and personnel; government-paid thugs violently disrupted a civil society public ceremony July 12 in Cité Soleil; police attacked civil society marches in Cap Haitien August 30 and September 14 and prevented an opposition march scheduled for October 5. Amiot Metayer was murdered September 21 (it is widely believed the government ordered the murder to prevent release of compromising information). The government announced August 13 that it was re-activating a defunct CEP in what many interpreted as a move toward holding elections outside the framework of OAS Resolution 822. The OAS and other foreign observers, including the U.S., denounced these steps. To re-invigorate the process envisioned in Resolution 822, the OAS designated a Special Envoy for Dialogue in Haiti, Terence Todman, a retired U.S. Career Ambassador. Todman, a native of the U.S. Virgin Islands, undertook three negotiating missions to Haiti in September-October 2003. Political instability grew throughout fall 2003. In Gonaives, Metayer's followers, hitherto pro-Aristide, led a violent rebellion against government authorities in the city. Government-sponsored repression of opposition protests reached a nadir when on December 5 pro-government gangs entered Haiti's state university campus and broke the legs of the Rector.
Following a meeting with Aristide at the Summit of the Americas in January 2004, Caribbean Community leaders proposed a plan to resolve the political crisis. President Aristide stated he accepted the plan at a meeting January 31. However, as the plan remained unimplemented, a high-level international delegation came to Haiti February 21 to obtain agreement on specific implementation timetable. President Aristide agreed, but the opposition "Democratic Platform" group of political parties and civil society expressed reservations. Meanwhile, the violence in Gonaives culminated February 5 in the former Cannibal Army, now called the Artibonite Resistance Front, seizing control of the city. Other armed groups opposed to the Aristide government quickly emerged and succeeded in seizing control of many towns, mostly with little resistance from government authorities. By February 28, 2004, a rebel group led by a former police chief, Guy Philippe, had advanced to within 25 miles of the capital. On February 29, 2004 Aristide submitted his resignation as President of Haiti and flew on a chartered plane to South Africa.
2004-2007 - Interim Government Prepares the Way for a New Democracy
Following the constitutional line of succession, Supreme Court Chief Justice Boniface Alexandre assumed the presidency and Gerard Latortue was appointed prime minister of the Interim Government of Haiti (IGOH) with the mandate of organizing elections to choose a new government. Despite significant delays and controversies over who was Haitian enough to run for President, the interim government managed to organize three rounds of elections with the help of the OAS and UN. The first round of elections for President and Parliament took place peacefully on February 7, 2006. An impressive turnout estimated at over 60% of registered voters caused some logistical difficulties which were overcome. Overall, the elections were considered free, fair, transparent, and democratic by national and international observers.
René Préval, former President (1996-2001) and former ally to Aristide, won the presidential election with 51.15%. Partial results had shown he fell short of the majority and triggered demonstrations against alleged fraud. The later decision of the Electoral Council not to count blank ballots gave the victory to Préval. The Parliament, composed of a 30-seat Senate and a 99-member Chamber of Deputies, was elected in two rounds held on February 7 and April 21, 2006. Lespwa is the main political force in both chambers but fell short of the majority. Fusion, UNION, Alyans, OPL, and Famni Lavals have many representatives in both chambers. Préval chose his long-time political associate and former Prime Minister Jacques-Edouard Alexis to serve again as his Prime Minister. Municipal elections were held December 3, 2006 and April 29, 2007. Some of these local government positions had not been filled in over a decade.
International Presence 1995-2004
After the transition of the 21,000-strong MNF into a peacekeeping force on March 31, 1995, the presence of international military forces that helped restore constitutional government to power was gradually ended. Initially, the U.S.-led UN peacekeeping force numbered 6,000 troops, but that number was scaled back progressively over the next 4 years as a series of UN technical missions succeeded the peacekeeping force. By January 2000, all U.S. troops stationed in Haiti had departed. In March 2000, the UN peacekeeping mission transitioned into a peace-building mission, the International Civilian Support Mission in Haiti (MICAH). MICAH consisted of some 80 non-uniformed UN technical advisers providing advice and material assistance in policing, justice, and human rights to the Haitian Government. MICAH's mandate ended on February 7, 2001, coinciding with the end of the Preval administration. The OAS Special Mission has some 25 international police advisors who arrived in summer 2003; is in addition to observing and reporting Haitian police performance, they provide limited technical assistance.
International Presence 2004-Present
At the request of the interim government and the UN, the U.S.-led Multilateral Interim Force, made up of troops from the U.S., Canada, France, and Chile, arrived in Port-au-Prince to ensure stability until the arrival of a UN peacekeeping force.
In April 2004, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1542, which created the UN Stability Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Since that time, the Security Council has consistently and unanimously approved the renewal of MINUSTAH's mandate at 6-month intervals. On February 15, 2007, the UNSC unanimously voted to extend MINUSTAH's mandate for 8 months through October 15. The Stability Mission is currently authorized at 7,200 troops and 1,951 civilian police.
