HISTORY
According
to recent findings of Kyrgyz and Chinese historians, Kyrgyz history
dates back to 201 B.C. The earliest descendents of the Kyrgyz
people, who are believed to be of Turkic descent, lived in the
northeastern part of what is currently Mongolia. Later, some of
their tribes migrated to the region that is currently southern
Siberia and settled along the Yenisey River, where they lived
from the 6th until the 8th centuries. They spread across what
is now the Tuva region of the Russian Federation, remaining in
that area until the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century,
when the Kyrgyz began migrating south. In the 12th century, Islam
became the predominant religion in the region. Most Kyrgyz are
Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school.
During
the 15th-16th centuries, the Kyrgyz people settled in the territory
currently known as the Kyrgyz Republic. In the early 19th century,
the southern territory of the Kyrgyz Republic came under the control
of the Khanate of Kokand, and the territory was formally incorporated
into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated
numerous revolts against tsarist authority, and many Kyrgyz opted
to move into the Pamir mountains or to Afghanistan. The suppression
of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz to migrate
to China.
Soviet
power was initially established in the region in 1918, and in
1924, the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the
Russian Federal Socialist Republic. (The term Kara-Kyrgyz was
used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from
the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kyrgyz.) In 1926, it
became the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On December
5, 1936, the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was established
as a full Union Republic of the U.S.S.R.
During
the 1920s, the Kyrgyz Republic saw considerable cultural, educational,
and social change. Economic and social development also was notable.
Literacy increased, and a standard literary language was introduced.
The Kyrgyz language belongs to the Southern Turkic group of languages.
In 1924, an Arabic-based Kyrgyz alphabet was introduced, which
was replaced by Latin script in 1928. In 1941 Cyrillic script
was adopted. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were
retained despite suppression of nationalist activity under Joseph
Stalin, who controlled the Soviet Union from the late 1920's until
1953.
The
early years of glasnost in the late 1980s had little effect on
the political climate in the Kyrgyz Republic. However, the republic's
press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish
a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers.
Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups
that emerged in 1989 to deal with an acute housing crisis were
permitted to function.
In
June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced
in an area of the Osh Oblast, where Uzbeks form a majority of
the population. Violent confrontations ensued, and a state of
emergency and curfew were introduced. Order was not restored until
August 1990.
The
early 1990s brought measurable change to the Kyrgyz Republic.
The Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a
significant political force with support in parliament. In an
upset victory, Askar Akayev, the president of the Kyrgyz Academy
of Sciences, was elected to the presidency in October 1990. The
following January, Akayev introduced new government structures
and appointed a new government comprised mainly of younger, reform-oriented
politicians. In December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change
the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it
became the Kyrgyz Republic.) In February 1991, the name of the
capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name--Bishkek.
Despite
these moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to
work against secession from the U.S.S.R. In a referendum on the
preservation of the U.S.S.R. in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters
approved a proposal to retain the U.S.S.R. as a "renewed
federation."
On
August 19, 1991, when the State Committee for the State of Emergency
(SCSE) assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose
Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week,
Akayev and Vice President German Kuznetsov announced their resignations
from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire
politburo and secretariat resigned. This was followed by the Supreme
Soviet vote declaring independence from the U.S.S.R. on August
31, 1991. Kyrgyz was announced as the state language in September
1991. (In December 2001, through a constitutional amendment, the
Russian language was given official status.)
In
October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected President of
the new independent republic by direct ballot, receiving 95% of
the votes cast. Together with the representatives of seven other
republics, he signed the Treaty of the New Economic Community
that same month. On December 21, 1991, the Kyrgyz Republic formally
entered the new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
In
1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political
associates blossomed into a major scandal. One of those accused
of improprieties was Prime Minister Chyngyshev, who was dismissed
for ethical reasons in December. Following Chyngyshev's dismissal,
Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist
premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one. In January 1994,
Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to
complete his term of office. He received 96.2% of the vote.
A
new constitution was passed by the parliament in May 1993. In
1994, however, the parliament failed to produce a quorum for its
last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term in
February 1995. President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated
a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians. Akayev, in turn,
asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by
preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role. Akayev scheduled
an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters,
which proposed two amendments to the constitution--one that would
allow the constitution to be amended by means of a referendum,
and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called the Jogorku
Kenesh.
Elections
for the two legislative chambers--a 35-seat full-time assembly
and a 70-seat part-time assembly--were held in February 1995 after
campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international
observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by
widespread irregularities. Independent candidates won most of
the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies.
The new parliament convened its initial session in March 1995.
One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise
constitutional language on the role of the legislature.
On
December 24, 1995, President Akayev was reelected for another
5-year term with wide support (75% of vote) over two opposing
candidates. President Akayev used government resources and state-owned
media to carry out his campaign. Three (out of six) candidates
were de-registered shortly before the election.
A
February 1996 referendum--in violation of the constitution and
the law on referendums--amended the constitution to give President
Akayev more power. Although the changes gave the president the
power to dissolve parliament, it also more clearly defined the
parliament's powers. Since that time, the parliament has demonstrated
real independence from the executive branch.
An
October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including
increasing the number of deputies in the lower house, reducing
the number of deputies in the upper house, providing for 25% of
lower house deputies to be elected by party lists, rolling back
parliamentary immunity, introducing private property, prohibiting
adoption of laws restricting freedom of speech and mass media,
and reforming the state budget.
Two
rounds of parliamentary elections were held on February 20, 2000
and March 12, 2000. With the full backing of the United States,
the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments
to free and fair elections and hence were invalid. Questionable
judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties
limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while
state-controlled media only reported favorably on official candidates.
Government officials put pressure on independent media outlets
that favored the opposition. The presidential election that followed
later in 2000 also was marred by irregularities and was not declared
free and fair by international observers.
March 2002 events in the southern district of Aksy, where six people protesting the arbitrary arrest of an opposition politician were shot dead by police, engendered nationwide protests. President Akayev initiated a constitutional reform process, which initially included the participation of a broad range of government, civil, and social representatives in an open dialogue. The reform process resulted in a February 2003 referendum, which was marred by voting irregularities. The amendments to the constitution approved by the referendum resulted in further control by the president and weakened the parliament and the Constitutional Court. Under the new constitution, the previously bicameral parliament became a 75-seat unicameral legislature following the 2005 parliamentary elections.
Parliamentary elections were held February 27 and March 13, 2005. The United States agreed with the findings of the OSCE that while the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections, there were improvements over the 2000 elections, notably the use of indelible ink, transparent ballot boxes, and generally good access by election observers.
Sporadic protests against widespread fraud during the parliamentary runoff elections in March 2005 erupted into calls for the government to resign. By March 24, 15,000 pro-opposition demonstrators called for the resignation of the president and his regime in Bishkek. Some injuries were reported when opposition demonstrators were attacked by police and pro-government thugs. Protestors seized the presidential administration building, after which President Akayev left the country for Kazakhstan, and then Russia. Looting broke out in parts of Bishkek on the evening of March 24, causing an estimated $100 million in damage.
Opposition leaders, caught by surprise by developments, moved to form a broadly inclusive “Committee of National Unity.” Opposition leader Kurmanbek Bakiyev was named acting President and Prime Minister. Bakiyev formed an alliance with primary rival Feliks Kulov whereby Kulov agreed to drop out of the presidential race if Bakiyev appointed him Prime Minister upon winning the elections.
Bakiyev easily won the July 10, 2005 presidential elections with over 88% of the vote. An unprecedented number of domestic and international observers monitored the elections and noted significant improvements in the electoral process over the parliamentary elections, although there were some reports of irregularities.
Opposition groups held a series of demonstrations in 2006, including the entire first week of November, to protest the lack of progress on reform, in particular of the constitution, promised by President Bakiyev in 2005. The Kyrgyz parliament adopted amendments to the constitution and President Bakiyev signed the amended constitution on November 9, 2006, which limited the powers of the president and increased the role of parliament. After the government resigned on December 19, the Kyrgyz parliament voted on December 30 to adopt new amendments restoring some of the presidential powers lost in November. President Bakiyev signed the changes into law January 15, 2007.
