GOVERNMENT
Following
the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian
interior. In 1885, British claims to a sphere of influence in
that area received international recognition and, in the following
year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered. In 1900, the company's
territory came under the control of the British Government, which
moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria.
In 1914, the area was formally united as the "Colony and
Protectorate of Nigeria." Administratively, Nigeria remained
divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony.
Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded
more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences
felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War
II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands
for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British
Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative,
increasingly federal, basis.
Nigeria
was granted full independence in October 1960, as a federation
of three regions (northern, western, and eastern) under a constitution
that provided for a parliamentary form of government. Under the
constitution, each of the three regions retained a substantial
measure of self-government. The federal government was given exclusive
powers in defense and security, foreign relations, and commercial
and fiscal policies. In October 1963, Nigeria altered its relationship
with the United Kingdom by proclaiming itself a federal republic
and promulgating a new constitution. A fourth region (the midwest)
was established that year. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic,
regional, and religious tensions were magnified by the significant
disparities in economic and educational development between the
south and the north.
On January
15, 1966, a small group of army officers, mostly southeastern
Igbos, overthrew the government and assassinated the federal prime
minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions.
The federal military government that assumed power was unable
to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable
to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish
the federal structure greatly raised tensions and led to another
coup in July. The coup related massacre of thousands of Igbo in
the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to
the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment
emerged.
In a move
that gave greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military
divided the four regions into 12 states. The Igbo rejected attempts
at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for
the east. Finally, in May 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military
governor of the eastern region, who emerged as the leader of increasing
Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the
eastern region as the "Republic of Biafra." The ensuing
civil war was bitter and bloody, ending in the defeat of Biafra
in 1970.
Following
the civil war, reconciliation was rapid and effective, and the
country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange
earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with
the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala
Muhammed and a group of fellow officers staged a bloodless coup,
accusing the military government of Gen. Yakubu Gowon delaying
the promised return to civilian rule and becoming corrupt and
ineffective. General Muhammed replaced thousands of civil servants
and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule
by October 1, 1979. Muhammed also announced the government's intention
to create new states and to construct a new federal capital in
the center of the country.
General
Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in an abortive
coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head
of state. Obasanjo adhered meticulously to the schedule for return
to civilian rule, moving to modernize and streamline the armed
forces and seeking to use oil revenues to diversify and develop
the country's economy. Seven new states were created in 1976,
bringing the total to 19. The process of creating additional states
continued until, in 1996, there were 36.
The
Second Republic
A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution,
which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political
activity, in effect since the advent of military rule, was lifted.
Political parties were formed, and candidates were nominated for
president and vice president, the two houses of the National Assembly,
governorships, and state houses of assembly. In 1979, five political
parties competed in a series of elections in which a northerner,
Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), was
elected president. All five parties won representation in the
National Assembly.
In August
1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide
victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and
control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred
by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral
malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.
On December
31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Maj. Gen.
Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military
Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. He charged the civilian
government with economic mismanagement, widespread corruption,
election fraud, and a general lack of concern for the problems
of Nigerians. He also pledged to restore prosperity to Nigeria
and to return the government to civilian rule but proved unable
to deal with Nigeria's severe economic problems. The Buhari government
was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member, Army
Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, in August 1985.
Babangida
cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers
of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's
deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover.
During his first few days in office, President Babangida moved
to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees
being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency,
he announced stringent pay cuts for the military, police, and
civil servants and proceeded to enact similar cuts for the private
sector. Imports of rice, maize, and later wheat were banned. President
Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation
in government decisionmaking by opening a national debate on proposed
economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced
Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package
dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.
The
Abortive Third Republic
President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian
rule by 1990; this date was later extended until January 1993.
In early 1989, a constituent assembly completed work on a constitution
for the Third Republic. In the spring of 1989, political activity
was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established
two "grassroots" parties: the National Republican Convention
(NRC), which was to be "a little to the right," and
the Social Democratic (SDP), "a little to the left."
Other parties were not allowed to register by the Babangida government.
In April
1990, mid-level officers attempted to overthrow the Babangida
government. The coup failed, and 69 accused coup plotters were
later executed after secret trials before military tribunals.
The transition resumed after the failed coup. In December 1990
the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government
level. While turnout was low, there was no violence, and both
parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with
the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.
In December
1991, gubernatorial and state legislative elections were held
throughout the country. Babangida decreed in December 1991 that
previously banned politicians would be allowed to contest in primaries
scheduled for August 1992. These were canceled due to fraud and
subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled.
All announced candidates were disqualified from again standing
for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential
election was finally held on June 12, 1993, with the inauguration
of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993,
the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.
In the
historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers
deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy
Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola had won a decisive victory. However,
on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense,
annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than
100 persons were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand
power to an "interim government" on August 27, 1993.
Babangida then attempted to renege on his decision. Without popular
and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan,
a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until
new elections, scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led
Babangida's Transitional Council since early 1993, Shonekan was
unable to reverse Nigeria's ever-growing economic problems or
to defuse lingering political tension.
With the
country sliding into chaos, Defense Minister Sani Abacha quickly
assumed power and forced Shonekan's "resignation" on
November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic political institutions
and replaced elected governors with military officers. Abacha
promised to return the government to civilian rule but refused
to announce a timetable until his October 1, 1995 Independence
Day address.
Following
the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and other
nations imposed various sanctions on Nigeria, including restrictions
on travel by government officials and their families and suspension
of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were
imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification
for its counter-narcotics efforts. In addition, direct flights
between Nigeria and the United States were suspended on August
11, 1993, when the Secretary of Transportation determined that
Lagos' Murtala Muhammed International Airport did not meet the
security standards established by the FAA. The FAA in December
1999 certified security at MMIA, opening the way for operation
of direct flights between Lagos and U.S. airports.
Although
Abacha's takeover was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment
grew rapidly. A number of opposition figures united to form a
new organization, the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO),
which campaigned for an immediate return to civilian rule. The
government arrested NADECO members who attempted to reconvene
the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. Most Nigerians
boycotted the elections held from May 23-28, 1994, for delegates
to the government-sponsored Constitutional Conference.
On June
11, 1994, using the groundwork laid by NADECO, Abiola declared
himself president and went into hiding. He reemerged and was promptly
arrested on June 23. With Abiola in prison and tempers rising,
Abacha convened the Constitutional Conference June 27, but it
almost immediately went into recess and did not reconvene until
July 11, 1994.
On July
4, a petroleum workers union called a strike demanding that Abacha
release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions then joined
the strike, which brought economic life in around Lagos area and
in much of the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a
threatened general strike in July, the Nigeria Labor Congress
(NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August, after the government
imposed "conditions" on Abiola's release. On August
17, 1994, the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and
the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators,
and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. Although striking
unions returned to work, the government arrested opponents, closed
media houses, and moved strongly to curb dissent.
The government
alleged in early 1995 that some 40 military officers and civilians
were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers quickly rounded
up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his
erstwhile deputy, retired Gen. Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret
tribunal, most of the accused were convicted, and several death
sentences were handed down. The tribunal also charged, convicted,
and sentenced prominent human rights activists, journalists, and
others--including relatives of the coup suspects--for their alleged
"anti-regime" activities. In October, the government
announced that the Provisional Ruling Council (PRC--see below:
Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule) and Abacha had approved
final sentences for those convicted of participation in the coup
plot.
In late
1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special
Tribunal to try prominent author and Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa
and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four prominent
Ogoni politicians in May 1994. Saro-Wiwa and 14 others pleaded
not guilty to charges that they procured and counseled others
to murder the politicians. On October 31, 1995, the tribunal sentenced
Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death by hanging. In early November
Abacha and the PRC confirmed the death sentence. Saro-Wiwa and
his eight co-defendants were executed on November 10.
In an
October 1, 1995 address to the nation, Gen. Sani Abacha announced
the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five
of the political parties which applied for registration were approved
by the regime. In local elections held in December 1997, turnout
was under 10%. By the April 1998 state assembly and gubernatorial
elections, all five of the approved parties had nominated Abacha
as their presidential candidate in controversial party conventions.
Public reaction to this development in the transition program
was apathy and a near-complete boycott of the elections.
On December
21, 1997, the government announced the arrest of the country's
second highest-ranking military officer, Chief of General Staff
Lt. Gen. Oladipo Diya, 10 other officers, and eight civilians
on charges of coup plotting. Subsequently, the government arrested
a number of additional persons for roles in the purported coup
plot and tried the accused before a closed-door military tribunal
in April in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death.
Abacha,
widely expected to succeed himself as a civilian president on
October 1, 1998, remained head of state until his death on June
8 of that year. He was replaced by Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar,
who had been third in command until the arrest of Diya. The PRC,
under new head of state Abubakar, commuted the sentences of those
accused in the alleged 1997 coup in July 1998. In March 1999,
Diya and 54 others accused or convicted of participation in coups
in 1990, 1995, and 1997 were released. Following the death of
former head of state Abacha in June, Nigeria released almost all
known civilian political detainees, including the Ogoni 19.
During
the Abacha regime, the government continued to enforce its arbitrary
authority through the federal security system--the military, the
state security service, and the courts. Under Abacha, all branches
of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses.
After Abubakar's assumption of power and consolidation of support
within the PRC, human rights abuses decreased. Other human rights
problems included infringements on freedom of speech, press, assembly,
association, and travel; violence and discrimination against women;
and female genital mutilation.
Worker
rights suffered as the government continued to interfere with
organized labor by restricting the fundamental rights of association
and the independence of the labor movement. After it came to power
in June 1998, the Abubakar government took several important steps
toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for
trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously between 1993 and
June 1998 under the Abacha regime. The Abubakar government released
two imprisoned leaders of the petroleum sector unions, Frank Kokori
and Milton Dabibi; abolished two decrees that had removed elected
leadership from the Nigeria Labour Congress and the oil workers
unions; and allowed leadership elections in these bodies.
Abubakar's
Transition to Civilian Rule
During both the Abacha and Abubakar eras, Nigeria's main decisionmaking
organ was the exclusively military Provisional Ruling Council
(PRC) which governed by decree. The PRC oversaw the 32-member
federal executive council composed of civilians and military officers.
Pending the promulgation of the constitution written by the constitutional
conference in 1995, the government observed some provisions of
the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted
the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution
was not implemented. The judiciary's authority and independence
was significantly impaired during the Abacha era by the military
regime's arrogation of judicial power and prohibition of court
review of its action. The court system continued to be hampered
by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an
attempt to alleviate such problems, Abubakar's government implemented
a civil service pay raise and other reforms.
In August
1998, the Abubakar government appointed the Independent National
Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government
councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly,
and president. NEC successfully held these elections on December
5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999,
respectively. For the local elections, a total of nine parties
were granted provisional registration, with three fulfilling the
requirements to contest the following elections. These parties
were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party
(APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD).
Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison
by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential
election. Irregularities marred the vote, and the defeated candidate,
Chief Olu Falae, challenged the electoral results and Obasanjo's
victory in court.
The PRC
promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended
1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the
new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for
a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of
a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate.
The executive branch and the office of president will retain strong
federal powers. The legislature and judiciary, having suffered
years of neglect, must be rebuilt as institutions.
The
Obasanjo Administration
The emergence of a democratic Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years
of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became the steward
of a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration
of most of its democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general,
was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his
record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in
1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.
The new
President took over a country that faced many problems, including
a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military
that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The
President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers
who held political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel
to investigate human rights violations, ordered the release of
scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded a number
of questionable licenses and contracts let by the previous military
regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars
in funds secreted in overseas accounts.
Most civil
society leaders and most Nigerians see a marked improvement in
human rights and democratic practice under Obasanjo. The press
enjoys greater freedom than under previous governments. As Nigeria
works out representational democracy, there have been conflicts
between the Executive and Legislative branches over major appropriations
and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been
the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction
between Abuja and the various state capitols over resource allocation.
In the eight years since the end of military rule, Nigeria has witnessed recurrent incidents of ethno-religious, community, and resource-related conflicts. Many of these arose from distorted use of oil revenue wealth, as well as from flaws in the 1999 constitution. In May 1999, violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir, resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi in Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February-May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the state. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the Middle-Belt states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001, President Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. In 2003, he was re-elected in contentious and highly flawed national elections and state gubernatorial elections, which were litigated over two years. Since 2006, violence, destruction of oil infrastructure, and kidnappings of primarily expatriates in the oil-rich Niger River Delta has intensified as militants demanded a greater share of federal revenue for states in the region, as well as benefits from community development. For many reasons, Nigeria's security services have been unable to respond to the security threat, which is both political and criminal.
In May 2006, the National Assembly soundly defeated an attempt to amend the constitution by supporters of a third presidential term for President Obasanjo. This measure was packaged in a bundle of what were otherwise non-controversial amendments. Nigeria's citizens addressed this issue in a constitutional, democratic, and relatively peaceful process.
Civilian Transition
Nigeria held state legislative and gubernatorial elections on April 14 as well
as presidential and national legislative elections on April 21, 2007, in which
more than 35 political parties participated. Nigeria missed an opportunity to
strengthen an element of its democracy through a sound electoral process.
Analysis of the process by most international observers did not conform to what
Nigeria's National Electoral Commission (INEC) reported. U.S. and international
observers reported overall a seriously flawed process with credible reports of
malfeasance and vote rigging in some constituencies. The scope of violence that
occurred also was regrettable. There were considerable degrees of difference in
the conduct of elections among states, but serious differences were also
observed within states during the two polling dates. The main opposition
parties, All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) and the Action Congress (AC), as well
as numerous smaller political parties and the ruling People's Democratic Party
(PDP) filed petitions to challenge the results of gubernatorial elections in 34
of Nigeria's 36 states. INEC's principal problems included politicization and
lack of independence, lack of transparency in its operations and
decision-making, and persistent failure to make adequate logistical arrangements
for both voter registration and polling. With INEC's certification of the ruling
party's presidential ticket as the winner with over 70% of the vote, Nigeria
experienced its first transition of power between civilian administrations when
President Obasanjo stepped down on May 29, 2007. Newly-elected President Umaru
Yar'Adua, a moderate and a respected governor from the northern state of
Katsina, pledged publicly to make electoral reform, peace and security in the
Niger Delta, and continued electoral reform his top priorities.
Although much reform remains to be implemented, the Yar'Adua administration has
attempted to distance itself from its predecessor and shown unprecedented
restraint in allowing the legislative and judicial branches to operate free from
influence. In October 2007 Patricia Etteh, the Speaker of the Federal House of
Representatives, resigned over allegations of corruption, after intense
legislative and public pressure. As of mid-February 2008, electoral tribunals
and the courts had nullified at least six gubernatorial, nine Senate, 11 House,
and 14 state-level House of Assembly elections from April 2007. On February 26,
2008 a tribunal upheld the results of the April 2007 presidential election. Two
of the leading opposition candidates have appealed that ruling to Nigeria's
Supreme Court.
Principal
Government Officials
President--Musu Umaru Yar'adua
Vice President--Goodluck Jonathan
Nigeria
maintains an embassy
in the United States at 3519 International Place, NW, Washington,
DC 20008, (tel. 202-986-8400, fax-202-775-1385) and a consulate
general in New York at 575 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10022,
(tel. 212-715-7200).
Type: Federal republic.
Independence: October 1, 1960.
Constitution: The 1999 constitution (based largely on the 1979 constitution) was promulgated by decree on May 5, 1999 and came into force on May 29, 1999.
Subdivisions: 36 states plus Federal Capital Territory (Abuja); states divided into a total of 774 local government areas.
2008 budget: $23.4 billion, of which recurrent expenditures constitute $11.1 billion, capital expenditures $7.4 billion, statutory transfers $1.4 billion, and debt service $3.2 billion. Critical sectors--security and the Niger Delta (20%); education (8%); transportation (7%); agriculture and water (5%); and energy (5%).
Indebtedness, including federal/state government debt, as percentage of GDP: 10.4%.
